1

Biogeochemical Processes of Biogenic Elements in China Marginal Seas Springer Jinming Song Rok: 2010 Język: english Plik: PDF, 11,26 MB 0 / 0

2

Endliche Strukturen Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg Kristina Reiss, Gernot Stroth (auth.) Rok: 2011 Język: german Plik: PDF, 2,09 MB 0 / 0

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UNIVERSE

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Britannica Illustrated
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© 2008 Editorial Sol 90
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Universe

Contents
What Is the
Universe?
Page 6

What Is in the
Universe?
Page 18

The Solar
System
Page 38

The Earth
and the Moon
Page 66

Observing
the Universe
Page 80

PICTURE ON PAGE 1
Image of a planetary nebula.
Planetary nebulae are among
the most photogenic objects
in astronomy.

CONE NEBULA
This nebula got its name
from its cone shape, as
shown in the image.

The Secrets of
the Universe

T

here was a time when people believed
that the stars were bonfires lit by
other tribes in the sky, that the
universe was a flat plate resting on the shell
of a giant turtle, and that the Earth,
according to the Greek astronomer Ptolemy,
was at the center of the universe. From the
most remote of times, people have been
curious about what lies hidden beyond the
celestial sphere. This curiosity has led them
to build telescopes that show with clarity
otherwise blurry and distant objects. In this
book you will find the history of the cosmos
illustrated with spectacular images that
show in detail how the cosmos was formed,
the nature of the many points of light that
adorn the night sky, and what lies ahead.
You will also discover how the suns that
inhabit space live and die, what dark matter
and black holes are, and what our place is in
this vastness. Certainly, the opportunity to

compare the destiny of other worlds similar
to ours will help us understand that for the
time being there is no better place than the
Earth to live. At least for now.

I

n the Milky Way—according to
mathematical and physical
calculations—there are more than 100
billion stars, and such a multitude leads to
the question: Is it possible that our Sun is
the only star that possesses an inhabited
planet? Astronomers are more convinced
than ever of the possibility of life in other
worlds. We just need to find them. Reading
this book will let you become better
acquainted with our neighbors in the solar
system—the other planets—and the most
important characteristics that distinguish
them. All this information that explores the
mysteries of space is accompanied by
recent images captured by the newest
telescopes. They reveal many details about
the planets and their satellites, such as the
volcanoes and craters found on the surface
of some of them. You will also learn more
about the asteroids and comets that orbit
the Sun and about Pluto, a dwarf planet,
which is to be visited by a space probe for

the first time. Less than a decade ago,
astronomers began observing frozen worlds,
much smaller than a planet, in a region of
the solar system called the Kuiper belt. We
invite you to explore all of this. The images
and illustrations that accompany the text
will prove very helpful in studying and
understanding the structure of all the visible
and invisible objects (such as dark matter)
that form part of the universe. There are
stellar maps showing the constellations, the
groups of stars that since ancient times have
served as a guide for navigation and for the
development of calendars. There is also a
review through history: from Ptolemy, who
thought the planets orbited around the
Earth, and Copernicus, who put the Sun in
the center, and Galileo, the first to aim a
telescope skyward, up to the most recent
astronomical theories, such as those of
Stephen Hawking, the genius of space and
time who continues to amaze with his
discoveries about the greatest mysteries of
the cosmos. You will find these and many
more topics no matter where you look in this
fantastic book that puts the universe and its
secrets in your hands.

What Is the Universe?

DARK MATTER
Evidence exists that dark matter, though invisible
to telescopes, betrays itself by the gravitational
pull it exerts over other heavenly bodies.

X-RAY OF THE COSMOS 8-9
THE INSTANT OF CREATION 10-13
EVERYTHING COMES TO AN END 14-15
THE FORCES OF THE UNIVERSE 16-17

T

he universe is everything that
exists, from the smallest
particles to the largest ones,
together with all matter and
energy. The universe includes

visible and invisible things, such as dark
matter, the great, secret component of
the cosmos. The search for dark matter
is currently one of the most important
tasks of cosmology. Dark matter may

literally determine the density of all of
space, as well as decide the destiny of
the universe. Did you know that, second
by second, the universe grows and
grows? The question that astronomers

are asking—the question that concerns
them the most—is how much longer the
universe can continue to expand like a
balloon before turning into something
cold and dark.

8 WHAT IS THE UNIVERSE?

UNIVERSE 9
Corona Borealis
Supercluster

X-Ray of the Cosmos

Capricornus
Supercluster

6.

T

he universe, marvelous in its majesty, is an ensemble of a hundred
billion galaxies. Each of these galaxies (which tend to be found in
large groups) has billions of stars. These galactic concentrations
surround empty spaces, called cosmic voids. The immensity of the
cosmos can be better grasped by realizing that the size of our fragile
planet Earth, or even that of the Milky Way, is insignificant
compared to the size of the remainder of the cosmos.

Boötes
Void

Shapley
Supercluster

Centaurus
Supercluster
Sculptor
Void

VIRGO

Coma
Supercluster

250

Pisces-Cetus
Superclusters

Ursa Major
Supercluster

Hydra
Leo
Supercluster

750

1.

Boötes
Supercluster

180°

Pavo-Indus
Supercluster

1,000
Pisces-Perseus
Supercluster

EARTH Originated, together
with the solar system, when
the universe was already 9.1
billion years old. It is the only
known planet that is home to life.

EARTH
Pluto

Neptune
Jupiter
Saturn

Virgo III
Group

0°

The Universe

Sextans
Supercluster

Originating nearly 14 billion years ago
in an immense explosion, the universe
today is too large to be able to conceive. The
innumerable stars and galaxies that populate it
promise to continue expanding for a long time.
Though it might sound strange today, for many
years, astronomers thought that the Milky Way,
where the Earth is located, constituted the entire
universe. Only recently—in the 20th century—was outer
space recognized as not only much vaster than previously
thought but also as being in a state of ongoing expansion.

180°
Horologium
Superclusters

Columba
Supercluster

NGC
6744

NGC
7582

12.5
25

Dorado

2.
Ross
128

Lalande
21185

Fornax
Cluster

12.5

Procyon

7.5

Luyten’s
Star

2.5
SUN
Alpha
Centauri

Sirius
270°

Bernard’s
Star
Ross
248
Groombridge
34

61 Cygni

Ross
154

NGC
3109

Antila
Dwarf

Leo I
Ursa
Minor Dwarf

L789-6

Epsilon
Eridani
L726-8
MILKY WAY

L789-6
Epsilon
Lacaille
Indi
Ceti
9352
L725-32

0.37
0.5
Carina
Dwarf

0.25

Canis
Major
Sagittarius
Dwarf

0.12

Large
Magellanic
Cloud
Small
Magellanic
Cloud

0°

Virgo
Group

Draco
Dwarf

1.2

Leo I

Ursa Major
Group

NGC
2997
0°

Leo III
Group

NEAREST GALAXIES. At a scale
of one hundred million light-years,
the galactic clusters nearest to
the Milky Way can be seen.

3.7

IC 10
NGC
147
M110

NGC
185

2.5
Andromeda I

Andromeda

NGC
6822

LOCAL GROUP. Ten
million light-years away
is Andromeda, the
closest to the Earth.

0°
Phoenix
Dwarf

Tucana
Dwarf

M32
Triangle
LGS 3
Aquarius
IC
1613 Dwarf

Cetus
Dwarf

Sagittarius
Irregular
Dwarf
WLM

Pegasus
Dwarf

NGC
4697

Maffei

Leo II
MILKY WAY

4.

Canis

180°

Sextans
Dwarf

0°

180°

L372-58

5.

Leo A

NEIGHBORS Within a space
of one million light-years,
we find the Milky Way and
its closest galaxies.

3.

90°

Sculptor

NGC
5033

Eridanus
Cluster

Sextans B
Sextans A

Struve
2398

Wolf
359

NGC
5128 M101

NGC
1023

50

NEAR STARS Found closer
than 20 light-years from the
Sun, they make up our solar
neighborhood.

LOCAL
GROUP

M81

37.5

G51-15

FILAMENTS. From five billion
light-years away, the immensity of
the cosmos is evident in its
galactic filaments, each one home
to millions and millions of galaxies.

7.

Hercules
Supercluster

Sculptor
Supercluster

Uranus

SUPERCLUSTERS. Within a
distance of a billion light-years,
groups of millions of galaxies,
called superclusters, can be seen.

100 billion
The total number of galaxies that exist,
indicating that the universe is both larger
and older than was previously thought

10 WHAT IS THE UNIVERSE?

UNIVERSE 11

The Instant of Creation

I

t is impossible to know precisely how, out of nothing, the universe began to exist. According to the big
bang theory—the theory most widely accepted in the scientific community—in the beginning, there
appeared an infinitely small and dense burning ball that gave rise to space, matter, and energy. This
happened 13.7 billion years ago. The great, unanswered question is what caused a small dot of light—filled
with concentrated energy from which matter and antimatter were created—to arise from nothingness. In
very little time, the young universe began to expand and cool. Several billion years later, it acquired the
form we know today.
Galaxy 1

The burning ball that gave rise to the universe remained a
source of permanent radiation. Subatomic particles and
antiparticles annihilated each other. The ball's high density
spontaneously produced matter and destroyed it. Had this state
of affairs continued, the universe would never have undergone the
growth that scientists believe followed cosmic inflation.

TIME

TEMPERATURE

NASA's WMAP project maps the background radiation of the universe. In the
image, hotter (red-yellow) regions and colder (blue-green) regions can be
observed. WMAP makes it possible to determine the amount of dark matter.

Although big bang theorists understood the universe as originating
in an extremely small, hot, and condensed ball, they could not
understand the reason for its staggering growth. In 1981, physicist Alan
Guth proposed a solution to the problem with his inflationary theory. In an
extremely short period of time (less than a thousandth of a second), the
universe grew more than a trillion trillion trillion times. Near the end of this
period of expansion, the temperature approached absolute zero.

Galaxy 2

Region 1

HOW IT GREW

Energetic Radiation

WMAP (WILKINSON MICROWAVE ANISOTROPY PROBE)

Cosmic Inflation Theory

Region 3

HOW IT DID
NOT GROW

Cosmic inflation was
an expansion of the
entire universe. The
Earth's galactic
neighborhood appears
fairly uniform.
Everywhere you look,
the types of galaxies
and the background
temperature are
essentially the same.

Galaxy 3

Galaxy 4

Galaxy 5

Had the universe not
undergone inflation,
it would be a
collection of different
regions, each with its
own particular types
of galaxies and each
clearly
distinguishable from
the others.

THE SEPARATION OF FORCES

Region 2

Region 5
Region 4

Gravity

Before the universe expanded, during a period of
radiation, only one unified force governed all
physical interactions. The first distinguishable
force was gravity, followed by electromagnetism
and nuclear interactions. Upon the division of the
universe's forces, matter was created.

Strong nuclear

SUPERFORCE

Weak nuclear
EXPANSION

Electromagnetism

0

10-43 sec

10-38 sec

10-12 sec

10-4 sec

5 sec

3 min

-

1032 ° F (and C)

1029 ° F (and C)

1015 ° F (and C)

1012 ° F (and C)

9x109 ° F (5x109 ° C)

2x109 ° F (1x109 ° C)

Scientists theorize that, from
nothing, something infinitely
small, dense, and hot appeared.
All that exists today was
compressed into a ball smaller than
the nucleus of an atom.

At the closest moment to
zero time, which physics has
been able to reach, the
temperature is extremely
high. Before the universe's inflation,
a superforce governed everything.

The universe is unstable. Only
10-38 seconds after the big
bang, the universe increases in
size more than a trillion trillion
trillion times. The expansion of the
universe and the division of its forces begin.

The universe experiences a
gigantic cooldown. Gravity
has already become
distinguishable, and the
electromagnetic force and the strong
and weak nuclear interactions appear.

Protons and neutrons
appear, formed by three
quarks apiece. Because
all light is trapped within
the web of particles, the universe
is still dark.

The electrons and their
antiparticles,
positrons, annihilate
each other until the
positrons disappear. The
remaining electrons form atoms.

The nuclei of the
lightest elements,
hydrogen and
helium, form.
Protons and neutrons unite to
form the nuclei of atoms.

1

2

3

4

5

1 sec

ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
In its beginnings, the universe was a soup of particles that interacted with each other
because of high levels of radiation. Later, as the universe expanded, quarks formed the
nuclei of the elements and then joined with electrons to form atoms.

6

7

The neutrinos separate from the initial particle soup through the disintegration
of neutrons. Though having extremely little mass, the neutrinos might
nevertheless form the greatest part of the universe's dark matter.

Proton

FROM PARTICLES TO MATTER
Photon
Massless elemental
luminous particle

Electron
Negatively charged
elemental particle

The quarks, among the oldest particles,
interact with each other by forces
transmitted through gluons. Later protons
and neutrons will join to form nuclei.

Gluon
Responsible for
the interactions
between quarks

Graviton
It is believed to
transmit gravitation.

Quark
Light, elemental
particle

Quark
Neutron
Gluon

1

A gluon interacts
with a quark.

2

Quarks join by means
of gluons to form
protons and neutrons.

3

Protons and
neutrons unite to
create nuclei.

12 WHAT IS THE UNIVERSE?

UNIVERSE 13

The Transparent Universe
With the creation of atoms and overall cooling, the once opaque and
dense universe became transparent. Electrons were attracted by the
protons of hydrogen and helium nuclei, and together they formed atoms.
Photons (massless particles of light) could now pass freely through the
universe. With the cooling, radiation remained abundant but was no longer the
sole governing factor of the universe. Matter, through gravitational force, could
now direct its own destiny. The gaseous lumps that were present in this
process grew larger and larger. After 100 million years, they formed even
larger objects. Their shapes not yet defined, they constituted protogalaxies.
Gravitation gave shape to the first galaxies some 500 million years after the
big bang, and the first stars began to shine in the densest regions of these
galaxies. One mystery that could not be solved was why galaxies were
distributed and shaped the way they were. The solution that astronomers have
been able to find through indirect evidence is that there exists material called
dark matter whose presence would have played a role in galaxy formation.

3
2
1

Gaseous cloud
The first gases
and dust resulting
from the Big Bang
form a cloud.

First filaments
Because of the
gravitational pull of dark
matter, the gases joined
in the form of filaments.

Filament networks
The universe has
large-scale filaments
that contain millions
and millions of galaxies.

THE UNIVERSE TODAY
Star
cluster
Star
Nebula

Irregular
galaxy

Quasar
Spiral
galaxy

Barred
spiral
galaxy

DARK MATTER

Elliptical
galaxy

The visible objects in the
cosmos represent only a
small fraction of the total
matter within the universe.
Most of it is invisible even to
the most powerful
telescopes. Galaxies and their
stars move as they do
because of the gravitational
forces exerted by this
material, which astronomers
call dark matter.

EVOLUTION OF MATTER
What can be observed in the universe today is a great
quantity of matter grouped into galaxies. But that was not
the original form of the universe. What the big bang initially
produced was a cloud of uniformly dispersed gas. Just three
million years later, the gas began to organize itself into
filaments. Today the universe can be seen as a network of
galactic filaments with enormous voids between them.

9.1 billion

Galaxy
cluster

THE EARTH IS CREATED
Like the rest of the planets, the Earth is made of
material that remained after the formation of the solar
system. The Earth is the only planet known to have life.

TIME
(in years)

380,000

500 million

9 billion

13.7 billion

TEMPERATURE

4,900° F (2,700° C)

-405° F (-243° C)

-432° F (-258° C)

-454° F (-270° C)

380,000 years after the big
bang, atoms form. Electrons
orbit the nuclei, attracted by
the protons. The universe
becomes transparent. Photons travel
through space.

Galaxies acquire their definitive
shape: islands of millions and
millions of stars and masses of
gases and dust. The stars explode
as supernovas and disperse heavier
elements, such as carbon.

Nine billion years after the big
bang, the solar system
emerged. A mass of gas and
dust collapsed until it gave rise
to the Sun. Later the planetary system was
formed from the leftover material.

The universe continues to expand. Countless galaxies
are surrounded by dark matter, which represents 22
percent of the mass and energy in the universe. The
ordinary matter, of which stars and planets are
made, represents just 4 percent of the total. The predominant
form of energy is also of an unknown type. Called dark energy, it
constitutes 74 percent of the total mass and energy.

9

8
FIRST ATOMS

NUCLEUS 1

10

11

Proton

Hydrogen and helium were the first elements to
be formed at the atomic level. They are the main
components of stars and planets. They are by far
the most abundant elements in the universe.

TIMESCALE
The vast span of time related to the history of
the universe can be readily understood if it is
scaled to correspond to a single year—a year
that spans the beginning of the universe, the

Electron

appearance of humans on the Earth, and the
voyage of Columbus to America. On January 1
of this imaginary year—at midnight—the big
bang takes place. Homo sapiens appears at

11:56 P.M. on December 31, and Columbus sets
sail on the last second of the last day of the
year. One second on this timescale is equivalent
to 500 true years.

Neutron

1

Hydrogen
An electron is attracted by
and orbits the nucleus, which
has a proton and a neutron.

2
NUCLEUS 2

Helium
Since the nucleus
has two protons,
two electrons are
attracted to it.

3

Carbon
With time, heavier and more complex elements
were formed. Carbon, the key to human life, has six
protons in its nucleus and six electrons orbiting it.

BIG BANG
occurs on the
first second of
the first day of
the year.
JANUARY

THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
is created on
August 24 of
this timescale.

COLUMBUS'S
ARRIVAL
takes place on
the last second
of December 31.
DECEMBER

14 WHAT IS THE UNIVERSE?

UNIVERSE 15

Everything Comes to an End

T

he big bang theory helped solve the enigma of the early moments of the universe. What has yet to
be resolved is the mystery surrounding the future that awaits. To unravel this mystery, the total
mass of the universe must be known, but that figure has not yet been reliably determined. The
most recent observations have removed some of this uncertainty. It seems that the mass of the universe
is far too little to stop its expansion. If this is this case, the universe's present growth is merely the last
step before its total death in complete darkness.

Flat Universe

1

There is a critical amount of mass
for which the universe would
expand at a declining rate without
ever totally stopping. The result of this
eternal expansion would be the existence of
an ever-increasing number of galaxies and
stars. If the universe were flat, we could
talk about a cosmos born from an explosion,
but it would be a universe continuing
outward forever. It is difficult to think
about a universe with these characteristics.

1

The universe
continuously
expands and
evolves.

2

The universe's
expansion is
unceasing but
ever slower.

3

DISCOVERIES
The key discovery that led to the big
bang theory was made in the early
1920s by Edwin Hubble, who
discovered that galaxies were moving
away from each other. In the 1940s,
George Gamow developed the idea
that the universe began with a
primordial explosion. A consequence
of such an event would be the
existence of background radiation,
which Arno Penzias and Robert
Wilson accidentally detected in the
mid-1960s.

1920s

1965

1940s

GALACTIC EXPANSION
By noting a redshift toward the red end of the
spectrum, Hubble was able to demonstrate that
galaxies were moving away from each other.

GAMOW'S SUSPICION
Gamow first hypothesized the big bang,
holding that the early universe was a
“cauldron” of particles.

BACKGROUND RADIATION
Penzias and Wilson detected radio signals
that came from across the entire sky—the
uniform signal of background radiation.

Gravity is not
sufficient to bring a
complete stop to the
universe's expansion.

Self-generated
Universes

The universe
expands indefinitely.

A less widely accepted theory about
the nature of the universe suggests
that universes generate themselves.
If this is the case, universes would be
created continuously like the branches of a
tree, and they might be linked by
supermassive black holes.

3

4

Universe 1
Universe 4
Universe 3

Black
hole

Black hole

THE HAWKING UNIVERSE

Open Universe

The universe was composed originally of four
spatial dimensions without the dimension of
time. Since there is no change without time,
one of these dimensions, according to Hawking,
transformed spontaneously on a small scale
into a temporal dimension, and the universe
began to expand.

Object in three
dimensions

1

After the original
expansion, the
universe grows.

2

Expansion is
continuous and
pronounced.

3

reaches a point where
everything grows dark
and life is extinguished.
TIME

BIG BANG

Some theorists believe
that, by entering a
black hole, travel
through space to
other universes might
be possible because of
antigravitational
effects.

The most accepted theory about
the future of the cosmos says
that the universe possesses a
mass smaller than the critical value. The
latest measurements seem to indicate that
the present time is just a phase before the
death of the universe, in which it goes
completely dark.

4

Inflection point

New universe

Object that changes
with time

Universe 1

Universe 2

Universe 3

HOW IT IS MADE UP

Closed Universe
If the universe had more than
critical mass, it would expand
until reaching a point where
gravity stopped the expansion. Then,
the universe would contract in the Big
Crunch, a total collapse culminating in
an infinitely small, dense, and hot spot
similar to the one from which the
universe was formed. Gravity's pull on
the universe's excess matter would stop
the expansion and reverse the process.

BLACK HOLES

2

BIG
CRUNCH

Dark energy is hypothesized to be
the predominant energy in the
universe. It is believed to speed up
the expansion of the universe.

74%
dark energy

22%

1

The universe
expands violently.

2

The universe's
growth slows.

3

The universe collapses
upon itself, forming a
dense, hot spot.

dark matter

4%
visible matter

Baby Universes
According to this theory, universes
continuously sprout other universes. But
in this case, one universe would be
created from the death or disappearance of
another. Each dead universe in a final collapse, or

5

Big Crunch, would give rise to a supermassive
black hole, from which another universe would
be born. This process could repeat itself
indefinitely, making the number of universes
impossible to determine.

16 WHAT IS THE UNIVERSE?

UNIVERSE 17

The Forces of the Universe

UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

T

he four fundamental forces of nature are those that are not derived from basic forces. Physicists
believe that, at one time, all physical forces functioned as a single force and that during the
expansion of the universe, they became distinct from each other. Each force now governs different
processes, and each interaction affects different types of particles. Gravity, electromagnetism, strong
nuclear interactions, and weak nuclear interactions are essential to our understanding of the behavior of
the many objects that exist in the universe. In recent years, many scientists have tried with little success
to show how all forces are manifestations of a single type of exchange.
What
we see

General Theory of Relativity

NEWTON'S EQUATION
Newton's law, an accepted paradigm
until Einstein's theory of general
relativity, lies in its failure to make time
an essential component in the
interaction between objects. According
to Newton, the gravitational attraction
between two objects with mass did not
depend on the properties of space but
was an intrinsic property of the objects
themselves. Nevertheless, Newton's law
of universal gravitation was a
foundation for Einstein's theory.

Two bodies with mass attract each other. Whichever
body has the greatest mass will exert a greater force
on the other. The greater the distance between the
objects, the smaller the force they exert on each other.

F

m1

m2

d

F=G x m1 x m2
d2
Strong Nuclear Force

Real
position

The strong nuclear force holds the protons and neutrons
of atomic nuclei together. Both protons and neutrons are
subject to this force. Gluons are particles that carry the
strong nuclear force, and they bind quarks together to form
protons and neutrons. Atomic nuclei are held together by
residual forces in the interaction between quarks and gluons.

3

RY
CTO
AJE
S TR

U
INO
LUM

The biggest contribution to our comprehension of the universe's internal
workings was made by Albert Einstein in 1915. Building on Newton's
theory of universal gravitation, Einstein thought of space as linked to time. To
Newton, gravity was merely the force that attracted two objects, but Einstein
hypothesized that it was a consequence of what he called the curvature of spacetime. According to his general theory of relativity, the universe curves in the
presence of objects with mass. Gravity, according to this theory, is a distortion of
space that determines whether one object rolls toward another. Einstein's general
theory of relativity required scientists to consider the universe in terms of a nonEuclidian geometry, since it is not compatible with the idea of a flat universe.
In Einsteinian space, two parallel lines can meet.

The gravitation proposed by Newton is
the mutual attraction between bodies
having mass. The equation developed by
Newton to calculate this force states
that the attraction experienced by two
bodies is directly proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the
distance between them. Newton
represented the constant of
proportionality resulting from this
interaction as G. The shortcoming of

Positive
pole

Electromagnetism

1

Electromagnetism is the force that affects
electrically charged bodies. It is involved in the
chemical and physical transformations of the
atoms and molecules of the various elements. The
electromagnetic force can be one of attraction or repulsion,
with two types of charges or poles.

2

Quarks and gluons
The strong nuclear interaction
takes place when the gluon
interacts with quarks.

Quark

2

Force
Gluon

E=mc2

SUN

In Einstein's equation, energy and mass are
interchangeable. If an object increases its
mass, its energy increases, and vice versa.
EARTH

Attraction
Two atoms are drawn together,
and the electrons rotate
around the new molecule.

Helium

Positive
pole

Negative
pole

Gravity

1

Hydrogen

mass in space would deform the cube.
Gravity can act at great distances (just as
electromagnetism can) and always exerts a
force of attraction. Despite the many
attempts to find antigravity (which could
counteract the effects of black holes), it
has yet to be found.

Weak Nuclear Force
The weak nuclear force is not as strong as the other
forces. The weak nuclear interaction influences the beta
decay of a neutron, which releases a proton and a
neutrino that later transforms into an electron. This force takes
part in the natural radioactive phenomena associated with certain
types of atoms.

4

Nucleus

Negative
pole

1
MOLECULAR MAGNETISM
In atoms and molecules, the electromagnetic force is
dominant. It is the force that causes the attraction
between protons and electrons in an atom and the
attraction or repulsion between ionized atoms.

Hydrogen
A hydrogen atom interacts
with a weak, light particle
(WIMP). A neutron's
bottom quark transforms
into a top quark.

HELIUM ISOTOPE

Electron
Proton

HYDROGEN ATOM

Proton

2

BENDING LIGHT

The universe, if it were empty, could be
pictured in this way.

Union
Quarks join and form
nuclear protons and
neutrons.

Force

Electron

Gravity was the first force to
become distinguishable from the
original superforce. Today
scientists understand gravity in Einstein's
terms as an effect of the curvature of
space-time. If the universe were thought of
as a cube, the presence of any object with

Nucleus

The universe is deformed by the mass
of the objects it contains.

Light also bends because of the curvature of space-time.
When seen from a telescope, the real position of an object
is distorted. What is perceived through the telescope is a
false location, generated by the curvature of the light. It
is not possible to see the actual position of the object.

Electron

Neutron

WIMP

Helium
The neutron transforms
into a proton. An electron
is released, and the helium
isotope that is formed has
no nuclear neutrons.

What Is in the Universe?

ETA CARINAE NEBULA
With a diameter of more than 200 light-years, it is
one of biggest and brightest nebulae of our galaxy.
This young, supermassive star is expected to become
a supernova in the near future.

LUMINOUS 20-21

THE FINAL DARKNESS 30-31

STELLAR EVOLUTION 22-23

ANATOMY OF GALAXIES 32-33

RED, DANGER, AND DEATH 24-25

ACTIVE GALAXIES 34-35

GAS SHELLS 26-27

STELLAR METROPOLIS 36-37

SUPERNOVAE 28-29

T

he universe is populated on a
grand scale by strands of
superclusters surrounding
vacant areas. Sometimes the
galaxies collide with each

other, triggering the formation of stars.
In the vast cosmos, there are also
quasars, pulsars, and black holes.
Thanks to current technology, we can
enjoy the displays of light and shadow

that make up, for example, the Eta
Carinae Nebula (shown), which is
composed of jets of hot, fluorescent
gases. Although not all the objects in the
universe are known, it can be said

without a doubt that most of the atoms
that make up our bodies have been born
in the interior of stars.

20 WHAT IS IN THE UNIVERSE?

UNIVERSE 21

SCORPIUS REGION

Luminous

Measuring Distance
When the Earth orbits the Sun, the closest stars
appear to move in front of a background of more
distant stars. The angle described by the movement of a
star in a six-month period of the Earth's rotation is called
its parallax. The parallax of the most distant stars are too
small to measure. The closer a star is to the Earth, the
greater its parallax.

F

or a long time stars were a mystery to humans, and it was only as recently
as the 19th century that astronomers began to understand the true nature
of stars. Today we know that they are gigantic spheres of incandescent
gas—mostly hydrogen, with a smaller proportion of helium. As a star radiates
light, astronomers can precisely measure its brightness, color, and temperature.
Because of their enormous distance from the Earth, stars beyond the Sun only
appear as points of light, and even the most powerful telescopes do not reveal
any surface features.

GLOBULAR CLUSTER
More than a million stars are
grouped together into a spherical
cluster called Omega Centauri.

The parallax of star B
is greater than that of
star A, so we see that
B is closer to the
Earth.

PARALLAX

Because the parallax
of star A is small, we
see that it is distant
from the Earth.

A

Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) Diagram
those with greatest intrinsic luminosity.
They include blue stars, red giants, and
red supergiants. Stars spend 90 percent
of their lives in what is known as the
main sequence.

The H-R diagram plots the intrinsic
luminosity of stars against their
spectral class, which corresponds to their
temperature or the wavelengths of light
they emit. The most massive stars are
INTRINSIC
LUMINOSITY (SUN = 1)
100,000

B

OPEN CLUSTER
The Pleiades are a formation of
some 400 stars that will eventually
move apart.

Position of
the Earth in
January

TYPE O
52,000-72,000° F
(29,000-40,000° C)

Supergiants

Spectral Analysis

TYPE B
17,500-52,000° F
(9,700-29,000° C)

Red giants

10,000
1,000

The electromagnetic waves that make up light have
different wavelengths. When light from a hot
object, such as a star, is split into its different
wavelengths, a band of colors, or spectrum, is obtained.
Patterns of dark lines typically appear in the spectrum of
a star. These patterns can be studied to determine the
elements that make up the star.

TYPE A
13,000-17,500° F
(7,200-9,700° C)

100
10
Main
sequence

1
0.1

TYPE F
10,500-13,000° F
(5,800-7,200° C)

SUN

TYPE G
8,500-10,500° F
(4,700-5,800° C)

0.01
White dwarfs

0.001
0.0001

O

B

A

F

G

K

M

SPECTRAL CLASSES

Calcium Hydrogen Hydrogen

Wavelength longest on the red side

TYPE M
4,000-6,000° F
(2,100-3,300° C)

DOPPLER EFFECT

COLORS The hottest stars are
bluish-white (spectral classes
O, B, and A). The coolest stars
are orange, yellow, and red
(spectral classes G, K, and M).

Wavelength is compressed by
the movement of the star.
Star

SIRIUS
(A0 and
dwarf star)

ALTAIR
(A7)

PROCYON
(F5 and
dwarf star)

Earth

Dark lines deviate toward the blue end of the spectrum.

PRINCIPAL STARS WITHIN 100 LY FROM THE SUN
ALPHA
CENTAURI
(G2, K1, M5)

Hydrogen

When a star moves toward or away from an observer, its
wavelengths of light shift, a phenomenon called the Doppler effect.
If the star is approaching the Earth, the dark lines in its spectrum
experience a blueshift. If it moves away from the Earth, the lines
experience a redshift.

year is a unit of distance, not time. A parsec
is equivalent to the distance between the
star and the Earth if the parallax angle is of
one second arc. A pc is equal to 3.26 lightyears, or 19 trillion miles (31 trillion km).

In measuring the great distances
between stars, both light-years (ly)
and parsecs (pc) are used. A light-year is
the distance that light travels in a year—
5.9 trillion miles (10 trillion km). A light-

Sodium

TYPE K
6,000-8,500° F
(3,300-4,700° C)

Light-years and Parsecs

SUN
(G2)

Position of
the Earth in
July

SUN

POLLUX
(K0 giant)

VEGA
(A0)

ARCTURUS
(K2 giant)

BLUESHIFT of a star moving toward the Earth.

ALIOTH
(A0 giant)

ALDEBARAN
(K5 giant)

CASTOR
(A2, A1, and M1)

CAPELLA
(G6 and G2
giants)

REGULUS
(B7 and K1)

GACRUX
(M4 giant)

MENKALINAN
(A2 and A2)

ALGOL
(B8 and K0)

LIGHT-YEARS
0

1

2

3

0

1
PARSECS

4

5

6

7

2

8

9

10 11

3

12

13

4

14

15 16

5

17

18

19

20 21 22 23

6

7

24 25 26 27 28 29

8

30 31 32

9

33 34

10

35 36 37 38 39 40

11

12

41 42

13

43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52

14

15

16

53

54 55 56

17

57 58 59 60 61

18

62 63 64 65 66

19

20

67 68 69

21

70

71

72 73

22

74

75

23

76 77

78 79

24

80 81

82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91
25

26

27

28

92

93 94 95 96

29

97 98 99 100

30

22 WHAT IS IN THE UNIVERSE?

UNIVERSE 23

Stellar Evolution

3.

S

tars are born in nebulae, which are giant clouds of gas (mainly hydrogen)
and dust that float in space. Stars can have a life span of millions,
or even billions, of years. The biggest stars have the
shortest lives, because they consume their nuclear
fuel (hydrogen) at a very accelerated rate. Other
stars, like the Sun, burn fuel at a slower rate and
may live some 10 billion years. Many times, a
star's size indicates its age. Smaller stars are the
youngest, and bigger stars are approaching
their end, either through cooling or by
exploding as a supernova.

1.
Massive star

2.

4.

RED SUPERGIANT
The star swells and heats up.
Through nuclear reactions, a
heavy core of iron is formed.

SUPERNOVA When the star can no longer
fuse any more elements, its core collapses,
causing a strong emission of energy.

STAR
A star is finally born. It
fuses hydrogen to form
helium and lies along
the main sequence.

PROTOSTAR
A protostar has a
dense, gaseous
core surrounded by
a cloud of dust.

More than 8 solar masses

5.

Nebula
A CLOUD OF GAS AND DUST collapses
because of gravitational forces. In doing
so it heats up and divides into smaller
clouds. Each one of these clouds will
form a protostar.

BLACK HOLE If the star's initial
mass is 20 solar masses or more, its
nucleus is denser and it turns into a
black hole, whose gravitational force
is extremely strong.

5.

NEUTRON STAR
If the star's initial mass is between
eight and 20 solar masses, it ends up
as a neutron star.

6.
Small star

BLACK DWARF
If a white dwarf
fades out
completely, it
becomes a black
dwarf.

Less than 8 solar masses

3.

Life Cycle of a Star
The evolution of a star depends on its mass. The
smallest ones, like the Sun, have relatively long and
modest lives. Such a star begins to burn helium when its
hydrogen is depleted. In this way, its external layers
begin to swell until the star turns into a red giant. It
ends its life as white dwarfs, eventually fading away
completely, ejecting remaining outer layers, and forming
a planetary nebula. A massive star, because of its higher
density, can form elements heavier than helium from its
nuclear reactions. In the final stage of its life, its core
collapses and the star explodes. All that remains is a
hyperdense remnant, a neutron star. The most massive
stars end by forming black holes.

1.

RED GIANT The star continues to
expand, but its mass remains
constant and its core heats up.
When the star's helium is depleted,
it fuses carbon and oxygen.

5.

PROTOSTAR
A protostar is formed
by the separation of gas
and dust. Gravitational
effects cause its core to
rotate.

2.

STAR The star shines and
slowly consumes its
hydrogen. It begins to fuse
helium as its size increases.

4.

PLANETARY NEBULA When
the star's fuel is depleted, its
core condenses, and its outer

layers detach, expelling
gases in an expanding shell
of gases.

WHITE DWARF
The star remains
surrounded by
gases and is dim.

95% of stars

end their lives as white dwarfs. Other (larger)
stars explode as supernovae, illuminating
galaxies for weeks, although their brightness is
often obscured by the gases and dust.

24 WHAT IS IN THE UNIVERSE?

UNIVERSE 25

Red, Danger, and Death
3

W

hen a star exhausts its hydrogen, it begins to die. The
helium that now makes up the star's core begins to
undergo nuclear reactions, and the star remains
bright. When the star's helium is depleted, fusion of
carbon and oxygen begins, which causes the star's
core to contract. The star continues to live, though its
surface layers begin to expand and cool as the star turns
into a red giant. Stars similar to the Sun (solar-type stars)
follow this process. After billions of years, they end up as
white dwarfs. When they are fully extinguished, they will
be black dwarfs, invisible in space.

SUN

1%
The scale of the
diameter of the Sun
to the diameter of
a typical red giant.

4

2
5

White Dwarf
After going through the red-giant stage, a solar-type star loses its
outer layers, giving rise to a planetary nebula. In its center remains a
white dwarf—a relatively small, very hot (360,000° F [200,000° C]), dense
star. After cooling for millions of years, it shuts down completely and
becomes a black dwarf.

6
LIFE CYCLE OF A
STAR

1

NEBULa NGC 6751

7
7
6

2
3

4

5

Red
giant

Red Giant
All stars go through a red-giant
stage. Depending on a star's
mass, it may collapse or it may simply
die enveloped in gaseous layers. The
core of a red giant is 10 times smaller
than it was originally since it shrinks

from a lack of hydrogen. A supergiant
star (one with an initial mass greater
than eight solar masses) lives a much
shorter life. Because of the high density
attained by its core, it eventually
collapses in on itself and explodes.

DIAMETER

Sun

Red supergiant. Placed
at the center of the
solar system, it would
swallow up Mars and
Jupiter.

Mercury's orbit
Venus's orbit
Earth's orbit
Mars's orbit

Red giant. Placed at
the center of the solar
system, it could reach
only the nearer planets,
such as Mercury,
Venus, and the Earth.

Hot Spots
Hot spots appear when large
jets of incandescent gas
reach the star's surface.
They can be detected on the
surface of red giants.

WHITE DWARF
After the nuclear reaction in the star's core ceases, the star
ejects its outer layers, which then form a planetary nebula.

Convection
Cells
Convection cells carry heat toward
the surface of a star. The ascending
currents of gas eventually reach
the surface of the star, carrying
with them a few elements that
formed in the star's core.

HERTZSPRUNG-RUSSELL
When a white dwarf leaves the
red-giant stage, it occupies the
lower-left corner of the H-R
diagram. Its temperature may be
double that of a typical red giant.
A massive white dwarf can
collapse in on itself and end its
life as a neutron star.

Dust Grains
Dust grains condense in the star's outer
atmosphere and later disperse in the form of
stellar winds. The dust acquires a dark
appearance and is swept into interstellar
space, where new generations of stars will
form. The outer layer of the star may
extend across several light-years of
interstellar space.

Jupiter's orbit
Saturn's orbit

REGION OF THE CORE

1 HYDROGEN
Hydrogen continues undergoing

SPECTACULAR DIMENSIONS
On leaving the main sequence,
the star enlarges to 200 times
the size of the Sun. When the
star begins to burn helium, its

size decreases to between 10 and
100 times the size of the Sun.
The star then remains stable until
it becomes a white dwarf.
HERTZSPRUNG-RUSSELL
When the star exhausts its
hydrogen, it leaves the main
sequence and burns helium
as a red giant (or a
supergiant). The smallest
stars take billions of years to
leave the main sequences.
The color of a red giant is
caused by its relatively cool
surface temperature of
3,600° F (2,000° C).

nuclear fusion in the exterior of
the core even when the inner
core has run out of hydrogen.

Mars Venus

Mars Venus

Sun

Mars Venus

Sun

2 HELIUM
Helium is produced by the fusion

Sun

of hydrogen during the main
sequence.

AND OXYGEN
3 CARBON
Carbon and oxygen are produced

by the fusion of helium within the
core of the red giant.

TEMPERATURE
4 As
the helium undergoes fusion,
the temperature of the core
reaches millions of degrees
Fahrenheit (millions of degrees
Celsius).

Earth Mercury

Earth Mercury

Earth
Earth

THE FUTURE OF THE SUN
Like any typical star, the Sun burns hydrogen
during its main sequence. After taking
approximately five billion years to exhaust its
supply of hydrogen, it will begin its
transformation into a red giant, doubling in

brightness and expanding until it swallows
Mercury. At its maximum size, it may even
envelop the Earth. Once it has stabilized, it will
continue as a red giant for two billion years and
then become a white dwarf.

RED GIANT
The radius of the
Sun reaches the
Earth's orbit.

26 WHAT IS IN THE UNIVERSE?

UNIVERSE 27

Gas Shells

W

hen a small star dies, all that remains is an expanding
gas shell known as a planetary nebula, which has
nothing to do with the planets. In general,
planetary nebulae are symmetrical or spherical
1
objects. Although it has not been possible to
determine why they exist in such diversity, the reason
may be related to the effects of the magnetic field of the
dying central star. Viewed through a telescope, several
nebulae can be seen to contain a central dwarf star, a mere
remnant of its precursor star.

BUTTERFLY

HELIX

NGC 6542 CAT'S EYE

4

3
2

5
6
LIFE CYCLE OF
A STAR

7

3 tons

7
6

2
3

5

4

Planetary
nebula

M2-9

The Butterfly Nebula contains
a star in addition to a white
dwarf. Each orbits the other
inside a gas disk that is 10
times larger than Pluto's
orbit. The Butterfly Nebula
is located 2,100 light-years
from Earth.

TWICE THE
TEMPERATURE OF
THE SUN

is reached at the surface of a
white dwarf, causing it to
appear white even though its
luminosity is a thousand times
less than that of the Sun.

SPIROGRAPH

is the weight of a single
tablespoon of a white
dwarf. A white dwarf is
very massive in spite of
the fact that its
diameter of 9,300 miles
(or 15,000 km) is
comparable to the
Earth's.

Concentric
circles
of gas, resembling the inside of an onion, form a
multilayered structure around the white dwarf.
Each layer has a mass greater than the combined
mass of all the planets in the solar system.

NGC 7293

The Helix is a
planetary nebula that
was created at the
end of the life of a
solar-type star. It is
650 light-years from
the Earth and is
located in the
constellation Aquarius.

White
Dwarf
The remains of the red
giant, in which the
fusion of carbon and
oxygen has ceased, lie
at the center of the
nebula. The star slowly
cools and fades.

MYCN 18

IC 418

The two rings of colored
gas form the silhouette of
this hourglass-shaped
nebula. The red in the
photograph corresponds to
nitrogen, and the green
corresponds to hydrogen.
This nebula is 8,000 lightyears from the Earth.

The Spirograph Nebula has a
hot, luminous core that
excites nearby atoms,
causing them to glow. The
Spirograph Nebula is about
0.1 light-year wide and is
located 2,000 light-years
from Earth.

CHANDRASEKHAR
LIMIT
The astrophysicist
Subrahmanyan
Chandrasekhar, winner of the
Nobel Prize for Physics in
1983, calculated the maximum
mass a star could have so that
it would not eventually collapse
on itself. If a star's mass exceeds
this limit, the star will eventually
explode in a supernova.

LARGER DIAMETER
Less massive white dwarf

Hydrogen
The continuously expanding
masses of gas surrounding the
star contain mostly hydrogen,
with helium and lesser amounts
of oxygen, nitrogen, and other
elements.
SMALLER DIAMETER
More massive white dwarf

DENSITY OF A WHITE DWARF
1.44 SOLAR MASSES
is the limit Chandrasekhar
obtained. In excess of this value,
a dwarf star cannot support its
own gravity and collapses.

The density of a white dwarf is a million
times greater than the density of water.
In other words, each cubic meter of a
white dwarf star weighs a million tons.

The mass of a star is indirectly
proportional to its diameter. A white
dwarf with a diameter 100 times smaller
than the Sun has a mass 70 times greater.

HOURGLASS

28 WHAT IS IN THE UNIVERSE?

Supernovae

A

supernova is an extraordinary explosion of a giant star at
the end of its life, accompanied by a sudden increase
in brightness and the release of a great amount
of energy. In 10 seconds, a supernova releases 100
1
times more energy than the Sun will release in its
entire life. After the explosion of the star that gives
rise to a supernova, the gaseous remnant expands and
shines for millions of years. It is estimated that, in our Milky
Way galaxy, two supernovae occur per century.

FEBRUARY 22,
1987

This star is in its last
moments of life. Because it
is very massive, it will end
its life in an explosion. The
galaxy exhibits only its usual
luminosity.

4

3

Supernova

2

5
6
LIFE CYCLE OF
A STAR

Explosion

Other Elements
When a star's iron core
increases in density to 1.44
solar masses, the star can
no longer support its own
weight and it collapses

The star's life ends in an immense
explosion. During the weeks
following the explosion, great
quantities of energy are radiated
that are sometimes greater than the
energy emitted by the star's parent
galaxy. A supernova may illuminate
its galaxy for weeks.

upon itself. The resulting
explosion causes the
formation of elements that
are heavier than iron, such
as gold and uranium.

7
7
6

2
3

4

5

The Twilight of a Star
The explosion that marks the
end of a supergiant's life occurs
because the star's extremely heavy
core has become incapable of
supporting its own gravity any longer.
In the absence of fusion in its interior,
the star falls in upon itself, expelling

its remaining gases, which will expand
and shine for hundreds—or even
thousands—of years. The explosion of
the star injects new material into
interstellar space and contributes
heavy atoms that can give rise to new
generations of stars.

THE END
Either a neutron star
or a black hole may
form depending on the
initial mass of the star
that has died.

Core
A star's core can be seen to
be separated into distinct
layers that correspond to
the different elements
created during nuclear
fusion. The last
element created
before the star's
collapse is iron.

FEBRUARY
23, 1987

After the supernova
explosion, increased
brightness is
observed in the
region near the star.

The mass of Eta Carinae
is 100 times greater
than that of the Sun.
Astronomers believe
that Eta Carinae is
about to explode,
but no one knows
when.

CRAB NEBULA
GAS AND DUST

BEFORE AND AFTER
The image at left shows a sector of
the Large Magellanic Cloud, an
irregular galaxy located 170,000 light-

ETA CARINAE

SUPERMASSIVE

years from the Earth, depicted before
the explosion of supernova 1987A. The
image at right shows the supernova.

Gas and dust that have
accumulated in the two visible lobes
absorb the blue light and ultraviolet
rays emitted from its center.

FUSION
The nuclear
reactions in a
dying star occur
at a faster rate
than they do in a
red giant.

Stellar Remnant
Supergiant
The diameter of the star may
increase to more than 1,000
times that of the Sun. Through
nuclear fusion, the star can
produce elements even heavier
than carbon and oxygen.
DENSE
CORE
GASEOUS FILAMENTS
Gaseous filaments are ejected
by the supernova at 620 miles
(1,000 km) per second.

When the star explodes as a supernova, it
leaves as a legacy in space the heavy
elements (such as carbon, oxygen, and iron) that
were in the star's nucleus before its collapse. The
Crab Nebula (M1) was created by a supernova
seen in 1054 by Chinese astronomers. The Crab
Nebula is located 6.5 light-years from Earth and
has a diameter of six light-years. The star that
gave rise to the Crab Nebula may have had an
initial mass close to 10 solar masses. In 1969, a
pulsar radiating X-rays and rotating 33 times per
second was discovered at the center of the
nebula, making the Crab Nebula a very powerful
source of radiation.

30 WHAT IS IN THE UNIVERSE?

UNIVERSE 31

The Final Darkness

T

he last stage in the evolution of a star's core is its
transformation into a very dense, compact stellar body.
Its particulars depend upon the amount of mass
involved in its collapse. The largest stars become black
holes, their density so great that their gravitational
forces capture even light. The only way to detect these
dead stars is by searching for the effects of their
gravitation.

Neutron Star
3

4

2

Black hole

5

6
LIFE CYCLE OF
A STAR

1

7
Neutron star

7

5

4

Strong Gravitational
Attraction
The gravitational force of the black hole attracts
gases from a neighboring star. This gas forms a
large spiral that swirls faster and faster as it gets
closer to the black hole. The gravitation field that
it generates is so strong that it traps objects that
pass close to it.

Discovery of Black Holes
X-rays. The black hole, by exerting such
powerful gravitational force, attracts everything
that passes close to it, letting nothing escape.
Since even light is not exempt from this
phenomenon, black holes are opaque and
invisible to even the most advanced telescopes.
Some astronomers believe that
supermassive black holes might have
a mass of millions, or even
billions, of solar masses.

When a star's initial mass is between
10 and 20 solar masses, its final mass
will be larger than the mass of the Sun.
Despite losing great quantities of matter
during nuclear reactions, the star finishes
with a very dense core. Because of its intense
magnetic and gravitational fields, a neutron
star can end up as a pulsar. A pulsar is a
rapidly spinning neutron star that gives off a
beam of radio waves or other radiation. As
the beam sweeps around the object, the
radiation is observed in very regular pulses.

6

2
3

The only way of detecting the presence of
a black hole in space is by its effect on
neighboring stars. Since the gravitational force
exerted by a black hole is so powerful, the gases
of nearby stars are absorbed at great speed,
spiraling toward the black hole and forming a
structure called an accretion disk. The friction
of the gases heats them until they shine
brightly. The hottest parts of the accretion disk
may reach 100,000,000° C and are a source of

1

X-RAYS
As gases enter the
black hole, they are
heated and emit X-rays.

LOSS OF MASS
Toward the end of
its life, a neutron
star loses more than
90 percent of its
initial mass.

RED GIANT
A red giant leaves
the main sequence.
Its diameter is 100
times greater than
the Sun's.

4

2

DENSE CORE
The core's exact
composition is
presently unknown.
Most of its
interacting particles
are neutrons.

SUPERGIANT
A supergiant grows
and rapidly fuses
heavier chemical
elements, forming
carbon, oxygen, and
finally iron.

1 billion

3
EXPLOSION
The star's iron core
collapses. Protons
and electrons
annihilate each other
and form neutrons.

tons is what one tablespoon of a
neutron star would weigh. Its small
diameter causes the star to have a
compact, dense core accompanied by
intense gravitational effects.

Pulsars

CURVED SPACE
The theory of relativity suggests
that gravity is not a force but a
distortion of space. This distortion
creates a gravitational well, the

depth of which depends on the
mass of the object. Objects are
attracted to other objects through
the curvature of space.

LIGHT RAYS

Accretion Disk
An accretion disk is a gaseous accumulation
of matter that the black hole draws from
nearby stars. In the regions of the disk
very close to the black hole, X-rays are
emitted. The gas that accumulates
rotates at very high speeds. When
the gases from other stars
collide with the disk, they
create bright, hot spots.

Total escape
Rays of light that
pass far from the
center of a black
hole continue
unaffected.

STRUCTURE OF A PULSAR

1
2
Close to the limit
Since the rays of light
have not crossed the
event horizon, they
still retain their
brightness.

Darkness
Rays of light that
pass close to the
core of a black hole
are trapped.

ACCRETION
DISK

HOT
GASES

4

X-RAYS

BLACK
HOLE

3

A NEUTRON STAR
attracts objects at
speeds approaching half
the speed of light. The
gravitational well is even
more pronounced.

A WHITE
DWARF
generates a
deeper
gravitational
well, drawing
in objects at a
higher speed.

Bright gases
Since the accretion disk is fed by gases
spinning at high speed, it shines
intensely in the region closest to its core
but at its edges is colder and darker.

Magnetic field

ENTRANCE
Possible
solid core

Neutron
star

BLACK HOLE

The objects that approach
the black hole too closely
are swallowed by it. The black hole's
gravitational well is infinite and traps
matter and light forever. The event
horizon describes the limit of what is,
and is not, absorbed. Any object that
crosses the event horizon follows a spiral
path into the gravitational well. Some
scientists believe in the existence of socalled wormholes—antigravity tunnels,
through which travel across the universe
is hypothesized to be possible. By taking
advantage of the curvature of space, scientists
think it could be possible to travel from the
Earth to the Moon in a matter of seconds.

Rotation axis

THE SUN forms a shallow
gravitational well.

EXIT

CROSS SECTION

The first pulsar (a neutron star radiating
radio waves) was discovered in 1967.
Pulsars rotate approximately 30 times per second
and have very intense magnetic fields. Pulsars
emit radio waves from their two magnetic poles
when they rotate. If a pulsar absorbs gas from a
neighboring star, a hot spot that radiates X-rays
is produced on the pulsar's surface.

Radio-wave beam
WORMHOLE

Devouring gas from
a supergiant
Located within a binary system, the pulsar can
follow the same process as a black hole. The pulsar's
gravitational force causes it to absorb the gas of
smaller, neighboring stars, heating up the pulsar's
surface and causing it to emit X-rays.

32 WHAT IS IN THE UNIVERSE?

UNIVERSE 33

MILKY WAY

Anatomy of Galaxies

Seen from its side, the Milky Way looks like a
flattened disk, swollen at the center. Around
the disk is a spherical region, called a halo,
containing dark matter and globular clusters
of stars. From June to September, the Milky
Way is especially bright, something that
would make it more visible viewed from above
than from the side.

G

alaxies are rotating groups of stars,
gas, and dust. More than 200 years ago,
philosopher Immanuel Kant postulated
that nebulae were island-universes of distant
stars. Even though astronomers now know that
galaxies are held together by gravitational force,
they have not been able to decipher what reasons
might be behind galaxies' many shapes. The various
types of galaxies range from ovals of old stars to spirals
with arms of young stars and bright gases. The center of a
galaxy has the greatest accumulation of stars. The Milky Way
Galaxy is now known to be so big that rays of light, which travel at
186,000 miles (300,000 km) per second, take 100,000 years to cross
from one end to the other.

ngc 6205 hercules

CLASSIFYING GALAXIES ACCORDING TO HUBBLE

ELLIPTICAL

These galaxies are elliptical in
shape and have little dust and
gas. Their masses fall within a
wide range.

SPIRAL

In a spiral galaxy, a nucleus of
old stars is surrounded by a flat
disk of stars and two or more
spiral arms.

IRREGULAR

Irregular galaxies have no defined
shape and cannot be classified.
They contain a large amount of
gases and dust clouds.

Galactic Clusters
SUBCLASSIFICATIONS
Galaxies are subdivided into
different categories according to
their tendency toward round
shape (in the case of elliptical
galaxies), as well as by the
presence of an axis and the length
of their arms (in the case of spiral

and barred spiral galaxies). An E0
galaxy is elliptical but almost
circular, and an E7 galaxy is a
flattened oval. An Sa galaxy has a
large central axis and coiled arms,
and an Sc galaxy has a thinner axis
and more extended arms.

Galaxies are objects that tend to form groups or clusters.
Acting in response to gravitational force, they can form
clusters of galaxies of anywhere from two to thousands of
galaxies. These clusters have various shapes and are thought to
expand when they join together. The Hercules cluster, shown here,
was discovered by Edmond Halley in 1714 and is located
approximately 25,100 light-years from Earth. Each dot represents
a galaxy that includes billions of stars.

Star Cities
The first galaxies formed 100 million years
after the big bang. Billions of these great
conglomerates of stars can be found throughout
space. The two most important discoveries
concerning galaxies are attributed to the
astronomer Edwin Hubble. In 1926, he pointed out
that the spots, or patches, of light visible in the

COLLISION

300 million light-years
from the Earth, these
two colliding galaxies
form a pair. Together
they are called “The
Mice” for the large tail
of stars emanating
from each galaxy. With
time, these galaxies will
fuse into a single, larger
one. It is believed that
in the future the
universe will consist of
a few giant stars.

night sky were actually distant galaxies. Hubble's
discovery put an end to the view held by astronomers
at the time that the Milky Way constituted the
universe. In 1929, as a result of various observations

of the spectrum of light radiated by the stars in the
galaxies, Hubble noted that the light from the galaxies
showed a redshift (Doppler effect). This effect
indicated that the galaxies were moving away from
the Milky Way Galaxy. Hubble concluded that the

ngc 4676
1
1.2 BILLION
YEARS
ago, the Antennae
(NGC 4038 and
NGC 4039) were
two separate
spiral galaxies.

2
300 MILLION
YEARS
later, the
galaxies
collided at
great speed.

universe is expanding. But the expansion of the
universe does not imply that galaxies are growing in
numbers. On the contrary, galaxies can collide and

3
300 MILLION
YEARS
go by until the
collision takes
place and the
shapes of the
galaxies are
distorted.

merge. When two galaxies collide, they can distort
each other in various ways. Over time, there are fewer
and fewer galaxies. Some galaxies exhibit very peculiar

4
300 MILLION
YEARS
later, the
stars in the
spiral arms
are expelled
from both
galaxies.

shapes. The Sombrero Galaxy, shown in the center of
the page, has a bright white core surrounded by thin
spiral arms.

5
NOW
two jets of
expelled
stars stretch
far from the
original
galaxies.

34 WHAT IS IN THE UNIVERSE?

UNIVERSE 35

Active Galaxies

A

small number of galaxies differ from the rest by emitting high amounts of
energy. The energy emission might be caused by the presence of black holes in
its core that were formed through the gravitational collapse accompanying the
death of supermassive stars. During their first billion years, the galaxies might have
accumulated surrounding gaseous disks with their corresponding emissions of radiation. It
is possible that the cores of the first galaxies are the quasars that are now observed at very
great distances.
GAS

As two jets are expelled from
the core, radio waves are
emitted. If the waves
collide with clouds of
intergalactic gas, they
swell and form
gigantic clouds that
can emit radio
waves or X-rays.

Galaxy Formation

CLASSIFICATION
The classification of an active galaxy depends
upon its distance from Earth and the perspective
from which it is seen. Quasars, radio galaxies, and
blazars are members of the same family of objects
and differ only in the way they are perceived.

A theory of galaxy formation
associated with active galaxies
holds that many galaxies, possibly
including the Milky Way, were formed
from the gradual calming of a quasar
at their core. As the surrounding
gases consolidated in the formation of
stars, the quasars, having no more
gases to absorb, lost their energetic

QUASARS The most

powerful objects in the
universe, quasars are so distant
from Earth that they appear to us
as diffuse stars. They are the
bright cores of remote galaxies.

GASEOUS CLOUDS

Gaseous clouds appeared from the
gravitational collapse of immense masses
of gas during the early stages of the
universe. Later, in the clouds' interior,
stars began to form.

RADIO GALAXIES Radio galaxies are

Energetic Activity
Astronomers believe that active galaxies are
a direct legacy from the beginning of the
universe. After the big bang, these galaxies would
have retained very energetic levels of radiation.
Quasars, the brightest and most ancient objects in
the universe, make up the core of this type of
galaxy. In some cases, they emit X-rays or radio
waves. The existence of this high-energy activity
helps support the theory that galaxies could be

fury and became inactive. According
to this theory, there is a natural
progression from quasars to active
galaxies to the common galaxies of
today. In 1994, astronomers studying
the center of the Milky Way
discovered a region that may contain
a black hole and could be left over
from early galactic activity.

the largest objects in the universe. Jets of
gases come out from their centers that
extend thousands of light-years. The cores
of radio galaxies cannot be seen.

born from a supermassive black hole with a
quasar that became inactive as stars formed and
it was left without gas to feed it. This process
of formation might be common to many
galaxies. Today quasars represent the
limit of what it is possible to see,
even with specialized
telescopes. Quasars are
small, dense, and bright.

INCREASING
GRAVITY

BLAZARS Blazars may be

active galaxies with jets of gas
that are aimed directly toward
Earth. The brightness of a blazar
varies from day to day.

3

4

The strong
gravitational force of
the disk attracts and
destroys stars.

1
2

As the gases
move inward,
their temperature
increases.

Dark clouds of gas
and dust on the
outer edge of a
black hole are
gradually
swallowed up.

The center of the
black hole radiates
charged particles.

CENTRAL RING
The core of an active
galaxy is obscured
by a ring of dust
and gas that is
dark on the
outside and
bright within.
It is a powerful
source of
energy.

1

100
MILLION DEGREES
Celsius is the temperature that the
core of a black hole can reach.

2

The Force
of Gravity

The Quasar
in the Core

Gravitational force begins to
unite vast quantities of hot,
gaseous clouds. The clouds
attract one another and collide,
forming stars. A large amount of
gas accumulates at the center of
the galaxy, intensifying
gravitational forces until a
massive black hole comes into
being in the galaxy's core.

The quasar in the core ejects two
jets of particles that reach
speeds approaching the speed of
light. The quasar stage is thought
to have been the most violent
stage in the formation of
galaxies. The gases and stars
arising from the jets are
introduced as spirals into the
black hole, forming a type of
accretion disk known as a quasar.

3
Black Hole
A black hole swallows the gas that begins to
surround it. A hot, gaseous spiral forms,
emitting high-speed jets. The magnetic field
pours charged particles into the region around
the black hole, and the exterior of the disk
absorbs interstellar gas.

ACCRETION
DISK

Formed by interstellar
gas and star remnants,
the accretion disk can
radiate X-rays because of
the extreme temperature of
its center.

PARTICLES

ejected from the black hole
have intense magnetic fields.
The jets of particles travel at
speeds approaching the speed of
light when they leave the core.

4
Stable Galaxy
Nine billion years after its formation, with a
supermassive black hole at its core, the galaxy
drastically slows its energetic activity, forming a lowenergy core. The stabilization of the galaxy allowed
the formation of stars and other heavenly bodies.

36 WHAT IS IN THE UNIVERSE?

UNIVERSE 37

Stellar Metropolis

F

or a long time, our galaxy (called the Milky Way because of
its resemblance to a stream of milk in the night sky) was a
true enigma. It was Galileo Galilei who, in 1610, first pointed
a telescope at the Milky Way and saw that the weak whitish strip
was composed of thousands and thousands of stars that appeared
to almost touch each other. Little by little, astronomers began to
realize that all these stars, like our own Sun, were part of the enormous
ensemble—the galaxy that is our stellar metropolis.

Structure of the Milky Way

Central Region

Large
Magellanic Cloud

MILKY WAY

Small
Magellanic
Cloud

Andromeda
Galaxy
Triangle
Galaxy

Because the Milky Way is full of clouds of dust and rock
particles, its center cannot be seen from outside the galaxy.
The Milky Way's center can be seen only through telescopes
that record infrared light, radio waves, or X-rays, which can
pass through the material that blocks visible light. The
central axis of the Milky Way contains ancient stars, some 14
billion years old, and exhibits intense activity within its
interior, where two clouds of hot gas have been found:
Sagittarius A and B. In the central region, but outside the
core, a giant dark cloud contains 70 different types of
molecules. These gas clouds are associated with violent
activity in the center of our galaxy and contain the heart of
the Milky Way within their depths. In general, the stars in
this region are cold and range in color from red to orange.

SAGITTARIUS B2
The largest dark cloud in
the central region of the
Milky Way, Sagittarius B2
contains enough alcohol to
cover the entire Earth.

HOT GASES
The hot gases originating
from the surface of the
central region may be the
result of violent explosions
in the accretion disk.

BRIGHT STARS
Bright stars are
born from gas that
is not absorbed by
the black hole. Most
of them are young.

BLACK HOLE
Many astronomers believe that
a black hole occupies the
center of the Milky Way. Its
strong gravitational force
would trap gases in
orbit around it.

MAGNETISM
The center of the Milky
Way is surrounded by
strong magnetic fields,
perhaps from a rotating
black hole.

GASES SWIRL
outward because of forces in the
Sagittarius A region. Because the
gas rotates at high speed but
remains concentrated, it could be
trapped by gravitational forces
exerted by a black hole.

ROTATION

The Milky Way, containing more than 100 billion stars, has two spiral arms
The speeds of the rotation of the various parts of the
rotating around its core. The Sagittarius arm, located between the Orion arm
Milky Way vary according to those parts' distances from
the core of the galaxy. The greatest number of stars is
and the center of the Milky Way, holds one of the most luminous stars in the galaxy,
concentrated in the region between the Milky Way's
Eta Carinae. The Perseus arm, the main outer arm of the Milky Way, contains young
core and its border. Here the speed of rotation is much
stars and nebulae. The Orion arm, extending between Perseus and Sagittarius,
greater because of the attraction that the objects in this
houses the solar system within its inner border. The Orion arm of the Milky
region feel from the billions of stars within it.
Way is a veritable star factory, where gaseous
interstellar material can give birth to
billions of stars. Remnants of
stars can also be found
120 miles per hour (200 km/h)
within it.
00

140 miles per hour (220 km/h)

The Exact Center
The core of the Milky Way galaxy is marked
by very intense radio-wave activity that
might be produced by an accretion disk
made up of incandescent gas surrounding a
massive black hole. The region of Sagittarius
A, discovered in 1994, is a gas ring that
rotates at very high speed, swirling within
several light-years of the center of the

3600

300

galaxy. The speed of its rotation is an
indication of the powerful gravitational
force exerted from the center of the Milky
Way, a force stronger than would be
produced by the stars located in the region.
The hot, blue stars that shine in the center
of the Milky Way may have been born from
gas not yet absorbed by the black hole.

150 miles per hour (240 km/h)
er hour (250 km/h)
155 miles p

A Diverse Galaxy

Central
protuberance

600

2700

OUTER RING
A ring of dark clouds of dust and
molecules that is expanding as a
result of a giant explosion. It is
suspected that a small object in
the central region of the Milky
Way might be its source.

900

The brightest portion of the Milky Way
that appears in photographs taken with
optical lenses (using visible light) is in the
constellation Sagittarius, which appears to lie in
the direction of the center of the Milky Way. The
bright band in the nighttime sky is made up of
stars so numerous that it is almost impossible to
count them. In some cases, stars are obscured
by dense dust clouds that make some regions of

the Milky Way seem truly dark. The objects that
can be found in the Milky Way are not all of one
type. Some, such as those known as the halo
population, are old and are distributed within a
sphere around the galaxy. Other objects form a
more flattened structure called the disk
population. In the spiral arm population, we find
the youngest objects in the Milky Way. In these
arms, gas and interstellar dust abound.

2400

THE MILKY WAY IN VISIBLE LIGHT
1200

Eta
Carinae

Eagle
Nebula

THE CONSTELLATION
SAGITTARIUS
Close to the center of
the Milky Way,
Sagittarius shines
intensely.

SOLAR SYSTEM

Cassiopeia A

1500

Orion
Nebula

6,000 light-years

2100

100,000
LIGHT-YEARS

Crab
Nebula

1800

The diameter of the Milky Way is
large in comparison with other
galaxies but not gigantic.

SECTORS
Many different
sectors make up the
Milky Way.

DARK REGIONS
Dark regions are
produced by dense
clouds that obscure
the light
of stars.

STARS
So many
stars
compose the
Milky Way that it
is impossible for us
to distinguish them all.

OLYMPUS MONS, ON MARS
Olympus Mons is the largest
volcano of the solar system. It
is about two-and-a-half times
as high as Mount Everest.

The Solar System

ATTRACTED BY A STAR 40-41

JUPITER, GAS GIANT 50-51

PLUTO: NOW A DWARF 58-59

A VERY WARM HEART 42-43

THE LORD OF THE RINGS 52-53

DISTANT WORLDS 60-61

MERCURY, AN INFERNO 44-45

URANUS WITHOUT SECRETS 54-55

CONSTRUCTION DEBRIS:
ASTEROIDS AND METEORITES 62-63

VENUS, OUR NEIGHBOR 46-47

NEPTUNE: DEEP BLUE 56-57
THOSE WITH A TAIL 64-65

RED AND FASCINATING 48-49

A

mong the millions and
millions of stars that form the
Milky Way galaxy, there is a
medium-sized one located in
one of the galaxy's arms—the

Sun. To ancient peoples, the Sun was a
god; to us, it is the central source of
energy that generates heat, helping life
exist. This star, together with the planets
and other bodies that spin in orbits

around it, make up the solar system,
which formed about 4.6 billion years ago.
The planets that rotate around it do not
produce their own light. Instead, they
reflect sunlight. After the Earth, Mars is

the most explored planet. Here we see a
photo of Olympus Mons, the largest
volcano in the entire solar system. It is
almost two-and-a-half times as high as the
tallest peak on the Earth, Mount Everest.

40 THE SOLAR SYSTEM

UNIVERSE 41

Attracted by a Star

P

lanets and their satellites, asteroids and other rocky
objects, and an incalculable number of cometlike objects,
some more than 1 trillion miles (1.6 trillion km) from the
Sun, make up the solar system. In the 17th century, astronomer
Johannes Kepler proposed a model to interpret the dynamic
properties of the bodies of the solar system. According to this

interpretation, the planets complete elliptical trajectories, called
orbits, around the Sun. In every case, the movement is produced
by the influence of the gravitational field of the Sun. Today, as
part of a rapidly developing field of astronomy, it is known that
planet or planetlike bodies also orbit other stars.

ORBITS

Outer Planets

In general, the
planets orbit in one
common plane
called the elliptic.

Planets located outside the asteroid belt. They are enormous gas spheres with
small solid cores. They have very low temperatures because of their great
distance from the Sun. The presence of ring systems is exclusive to these planets. The
greatest of them is Jupiter: 1,300 Earths could fit inside of it. Its mass is 2.5 times as
great as that of the rest of the planets combined.

Earth's
orbit

Venus's
orbit

Mercury's
orbit

Mars's
orbit

Main
belt

NEPTUNE
DIAMETER 30,775 MILES (49,528 KM)
MOONS
13
Triton

Proteus

Nereid

URANUS
DIAMETER 31,763 MILES (51,118 KM)
MOONS
27
Titania

Oberon

Umbriel

Jupiter's
orbit

Ariel

Miranda

Saturn's
orbit

Uranus's
orbit

Neptune's
orbit

Puck
The rotation of most planets around their own
axes is in counterclockwise direction. Venus and
Uranus, however, revolve clockwise.

SATURN
DIAMETER 74,898 MILES (120,536 KM)
MOONS
50+

Titan

Rhea

Iapetus

Tethys

BUILDING PLANETS
Early ideas suggested that the planets formed gradually,
beginning with the binding of hot dust particles. Today
scientists suggest that the planets originated from the
collision and melding of larger-sized bodies called
planetesimals.

JUPITER
DIAMETER 88,846 MILES (142,984 KM)
MOONS
60+

1
ORIGIN

Ganymede

Callisto

Io

Remains from the
formation of the Sun
created a disk of gas
and dust around it,
from which the
planetesimals formed.

Europa

2
COLLISION

Through collisions
among themselves,
planetesimals of
different sizes joined
together to become
more massive objects.

Asteroid Belt
The border between the outer and inner
planets is marked by millions of rocky
fragments of various sizes that form a band
called the asteroid belt. Their orbits are
influenced by the gravitational pull exerted on
them by the giant planet Jupiter. This effect also
keeps them from merging and forming a planet.

3
HEAT

The collisions
produced a large
amount of heat that
accumulated in the
interior of the planets,
according to their
distance from the Sun.

Phobos Deimos

DIAMETER 4,217 MILES
(6,786 KM)
2
MOONS

Inner Planets
Planets located inside the asteroid
belt. They are solid bodies in which
internal geologic phenomena, such as
volcanism, which can modify their surfaces,
are produced. Almost all of them have an
appreciable atmosphere of some degree of
thickness, according to individual
circumstances, which plays a key role in
the surface temperatures of each planet.

MARS

EARTH

MOON

DIAMETER 7,926 MILES
(12,756 KM)
1
MOONS

VENUS

MERCURY

DIAMETER 7,520 MILES
(12,103 KM)
0
MOONS

DIAMETER 3,031 MILES
(4,878 KM)
0
MOONS

S

U

N

SOLAR
GRAVITY
The gravitational pull of the
Sun upon the planets not
only keeps them inside
the solar system but
also influences the
speed with which
they revolve in their
orbits around the Sun.
Those closest to the Sun
revolve in their orbits much
faster than those farther
from it.

42 THE SOLAR SYSTEM

UNIVERSE 43

A Very Warm Heart

Surface and Atmosphere

T

he Sun at the center of the solar system is a source of light and
heat. This energy is produced by the fusion of atomic hydrogen nuclei,
which generate helium nuclei. The energy that emanates from the
Sun travels through space and initially encounters the bodies that
populate the solar system. The Sun shines thanks to thermonuclear
fusion, and it will continue to shine until its supply of hydrogen
runs out in about six or seven billion years.

SUNSPOTS
are regions of gases that are
generally colder (7,232° F [4,000°
C]) than the photosphere (10,112° F
[5,600° C]). For that reason, they
appear dark.

Very Gassy

1.

CONVECTIVE ZONE
extends from the base of the
photosphere down to a depth of
15 percent of the solar radius.
Here energy is transported up
toward the surface by gas
currents (through convection).

CHARACTERISTICS
CONVENTIONAL
PLANET
SYMBOL
ESSENTIAL DATA

Proton

Average distance 93 million miles
from Earth
(150 million km)
Equatorial
diameter
Orbital
speed

864,000 miles
(1,391,000 km)
7,456 miles per
second (12,000 km/s)

Mass*
Gravity*
Density

332,900
28
0.81 ounce per cubic
inch (1.4 g per cu cm)

Average
temperature

9,932° F
(5,500° C)

Atmosphere

Dense

Moons

NUCLEAR COLLISION
Two hydrogen nuclei (two
protons) collide and remain
joined. One changes into a
neutron, and deuterium
forms, releasing a neutrino,
a positron, and
a lot of energy.

RADIATIVE ZONE
This portion of the Sun is
traversed by particles coming
from the core. A proton can take
a million years to cross this zone.

Neutron

10,112º F
(5,600º C)
CORE
The core occupies only 2 percent
of the total volume of the Sun,
but in it is concentrated about
half the total mass of the Sun.
The great pressures and
temperatures in the core produce
thermonuclear fusion.

CHROMOSPHERE
Above the photosphere, and of less density,
lies the chromosphere, a layer 3,110 miles
(5,000 km) thick. Its temperature ranges
from 8,100° F (4,500° C) to 900,000° F
(500,000° C) with increasing altitude. The
temperature of the corona can reach
1,800,000° F (1,000,000° C).

900,000º F
(500,000º C)
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE
OF THE CHROMOSPHERE

SPICULES
Vertical jets of gas that spew from the chromosphere, usually
reaching 6,200 miles (10,000 km) in height. They originate in
upper convection cells and can rise as high as the corona.

Neutrino

MACROSPICULES
This type of vertical eruption is similar to a
spicule, but it usually reaches up to 25,000
miles (40,000 km) in height.

27,000,000º F

14,400,000º F

Deuterium

(15,000,000º C)

(8,000,000º C)
CORONA

None

*In both cases, Earth = 1
Photon

NUCLEAR FUSION
OF HYDROGEN
The extraordinary temperature of
the nuclear core helps the hydrogen
nuclei join. Under conditions of
lower energy, they repel each other,
but the conditions at the center of
the Sun can overcome the repulsive
forces, and nuclear fusion occurs.
For every four hydrogen nuclei, a
series of nuclear reactions produce
one helium nucleus.

3.

Positron

The visible surface of the Sun, a boiling tide,
is thick with gases in a plasma state. In its
uppermost layer, its density decreases and its
transparency increases, and the solar radiation
escapes from the Sun as light. The
spectrographic study of this layer has allowed
scientists to confirm that the main components of
the Sun are hydrogen and helium.

PENUMBRA
Peripheral region. It is
the hottest and brightest
part of the Sun.

UMBRA
Central region.
It is the
coldest and
darkest
part.

PHOTOSPHERE

The Sun is a giant ball of gases with very high density and
temperature. Its main components are hydrogen (90%) and
helium (9%). The balance of its mass is made up of trace elements,
such as carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, among others. Because of the
conditions of extreme temperature and pressure on the Sun, these
elements are in a plasma state.

toward its outermost region. Above the
photosphere lies the solar atmosphere—the
chromosphere and the corona. The energy
generated at the core moves through the surface of
the photosphere and solar atmosphere for
thousands of years in search of an exit into space.

The visible portion of the Sun is a sphere of
light, or photosphere, made of boiling gases
emanating from the solar core. The gas flares form
plasma, which passes through this layer. Later the
gas flares enter a vast gas layer called the solar
atmosphere. The density of this layer decreases

HELIUM NUCLEI
The group of two protons
and a neutron collides with
another such group. A
helium nucleus forms, and a
pair of protons is released.

2.

Deuterium 1

HELIUM
NUCLEUS

Deuterium 2

Proton 1

Proton 2

PHOTONS
The deuterium formed
collides with a proton.
This collision releases one
photon and gamma rays.
The high-energy photon
needs 30,000 years to
reach the photosphere.

Located above the
chromosphere, it extends
millions of miles into space and
reaches temperatures nearing
1,800,000° F (1,000,000° C).
It has some holes, or lowdensity regions, through which
gases flow into the solar wind.

SOLAR PROMINENCES
Clouds and layers of gas from
the chromosphere travel
thousands of miles until they
reach the corona, where the
influence of magnetic fields
causes them to take on the
shape of an arc or wave.

SOLAR FLARES
These eruptions come out of the solar
atmosphere and can interfere with radio
communications on Earth.

1,800,000º F
(1,000,000º C)
THE TEMPERATURE IN THE CORONA

SOLAR WIND
Consists of a flux of ions emitted by the solar
atmosphere. The composition is similar to that of
the corona. The Sun loses approximately 1,800
pounds (800 kg) of matter per second in the
form of solar wind.

44 THE SOLAR SYSTEM

UNIVERSE 45

Mercury, an Inferno

Composition and Magnetic Field

M

ercury is the planet nearest to the Sun and is therefore the one that has to
withstand the harshest of the Sun's effects. Due to its proximity to the Sun, Mercury
moves at great speed in its solar orbit, completing an orbit every 88 days. It has almost no
atmosphere, and its surface is dry and rugged, covered with craters caused by the impact of
numerous meteorites; this makes it resemble the Moon. Numerous faults, formed during the cooling of
the planet when it was young, are also visible on the surface. Constantly baked by its neighbor, the
Sun, Mercury has an average surface temperature of 333° F (167° C).

22%

Sodium

Hydrogen

6%
Helium

43%
Others

CRUST
Made of silicate rocks,
Mercury's crust is similar
to the crust and mantle
of the Earth. It has a
thickness of 310 to 370
miles (500-600 km).

EXTREMELY THIN ATMOSPHERE
Mercury's atmosphere is almost nonexistent and consists
of a very thin layer that cannot protect the planet either
from the Sun or from meteorites. During the day, when
Mercury is closer to the Sun, the planet's temperature can
surpass 842° F (450° C). At night, temperatures can
plummet to -297° F (-183° C).
During the night, the
heat of Mercury's
rocks is lost rapidly,
and the planet's
temperature drops.

During the
day, the Sun
directly heats
the rock.

-297º F

883º F

(-183º C)

(473º C)
CHARACTERISTICS

les
0 mi )
2,24
0 Km
(3,60

The surface of Mercury is very similar to that of the Moon. It is possible to find
craters of varying sizes. The largest one has a diameter of some 810 miles (1,300
km). There are also hills and valleys. In 1991, radio telescopes were able to detect
possible evidence of the presence of frozen water in Mercury's polar regions,
information that Mariner 10 had been unable to gather. Mariner 10, the only
mission sent to Mercury, flew by the planet three times between 1974 and 1975.
The polar ice was found at the bottom of very deep craters, which limit the
ice's exposure to the Sun's rays. The spacecraft Messenger, launched in
2004, is scheduled to orbit the planet Mercury in 2011 and is expected to
provide new information about Mercury's surface and magnetic field.

29%

iles
310 m Km)
(500

A Scar-Covered Surface

Like the Earth, Mercury has a magnetic field, although a much
weaker one. The magnetism results from its enormous core
made of solid iron. The mantle that surrounds the core is believed to
be a fine layer of iron and sulfur.

CORE
Dense, large, and made
of iron, its diameter
may be as great as
2,240 to 2,300 miles
(3,600-3,800 km).

CONVENTIONAL
PLANET SYMBOL
ESSENTIAL DATA

Average distance 36,000,000 miles
from the Sun
(57,900,000 km)
Solar orbit
(Mercurian year)

88 days
00 hours

Equatorial
diameter
Orbital speed

CALORIS CRATER
The largest impact crater in the
solar system, it has a diameter
of 810 miles (1,300 km).

3,032 miles
(4,880 km)
29.75 miles per
second (47.87 km/s)

Mass*
Gravity*
Density

The crater
was
flooded
with lava.

0.06
0.38
3.14 ounces per cubic
inch (5.43 g/cu cm)

Average temperature 332° F (167° C)
Atmosphere Almost nonexistent
Lunas

When the projectile that formed the
crater struck, Mercury was still
forming. The extensive waves that
extended from the site of impact
formed hills and mountains ranges.

333º F

MANTLE
Made up mostly of
silica-based rocks

(167º C)

Baked by its neighbor the Sun, Mercury is the planet with
the greatest thermal fluctuations in the solar system. Its
average temperature is 333° F (167° C), but when it gets
closer to the Sun, the temperature can climb to 842° F
(450° C). At night, it drops to -297° F (-183° C).

*In both cases, Earth = 1
AXIS INCLINATION

0.1°
One rotation
lasts 59 days.

Rotation and Orbit
Mercury rotates slowly on its axis and takes approximately 59
Earth days to complete a turn, but it only needs 88 days to
travel in its orbit. To an observer in Mercury, these two combined
motions would give a combined interval of 176 days between two

BEETHOVEN
is the second largest crater on
Mercury. It is 400 miles (643
km) in diameter. Its floor was
flooded by lava and later
marked by meteorite impacts.

ORBIT OF MERCURY
AROUND THE SUN

Missions to Mercury
The space probe Mariner 10 was the first to reach Mercury. Between
1974 and 1975, the craft flew by the planet three times and came
within about 200 miles (320 km) of the surface. Messenger, a space probe
scheduled to study Mercury between 2008 and 2011, was launched in 2004.

Mariner 10

Messenger
The probe will pass
by Mercury twice in
2008 and once
again in 2009
before beginning to
orbit the planet.

3

sunrises. A person observing the sunrise from position 1 would have to
wait for the planet to make two orbits around the Sun and make three
rotations on its own axis before seeing the next sunrise.

VIEW FROM
MERCURY
the zenith
3 Reaches
(noon) and stops

2

4
1
SUN

its original
6 Resumes
path toward the
horizon

5
6
Each number
corresponds to a position
of the Sun in the sky as
seen from Mercury.

4 Recedes
a bit

7

7

5

Decreases toward
the sunset

Stops
again

and
2 Rises
increases its size

1
HORIZON OF MERCURY

The Sun
rises.

46 THE SOLAR SYSTEM

UNIVERSE 47

Venus, Our Neighbor

VENUS'S PHASES

V

enus is the second closest planet to the Sun. Similar in size to the Earth, it
has a volcanic surface, as well as a hostile atmosphere governed by the effects of carbon
dioxide. Although about four billion years ago the atmospheres of the Earth and Venus were
similar, the mass of Venus's atmosphere today is 100 times greater than the Earth's. Its thick
clouds of sulfuric acid and dust are so dense that stars are invisible from the planet's surface.
Viewed from the Earth, Venus can be bright enough to be visible during day and second only to the
moon in brightness at night. Because of this, the movements of Venus were well-known by most
ancient civilizations.

As Venus revolves around the
Sun, its solar illumination varies
as is seen from the Earth
depending upon its position in
relation to the Sun and the
Earth. Thus Venus has phases
similar to the Moon's. During its
elongations, when Venus is
farthest from the Sun in the sky,
Venus appears at its brightest.

VENUS'S PHASES
AS SEEN FROM
EARTH

WAXING
CRESCENT

FIRST
QUARTER

WAXING
GIBBOUS

SUN
EARTH

WANING
GIBBOUS

LAST
QUARTER

WANING
CRESCENT

THE NEW AND FULL
PHASES ARE NOT
VISIBLE FROM EARTH.

VENUS

Surface

ESSENTIAL DATA

Average distance
from the Sun

67,000,000 miles
(108,000,000 km)

Solar orbit
(Venusian year)

224 days
17 hours

Equatorial
diameter

7,520 miles
(12,100 km)

Orbital speed

22 miles per second
(35 km/s)

Mass*
Gravity*
Density

The overwhelming presence of carbon dioxide in the
Venusian atmosphere induces a greenhouse effect,
increasing the surface temperature to 864° F (462° C). Because
of this, Venus is hotter than Mercury, even though Venus is
ATMOSPHERE
Venus's glowing appearance
is caused by the planet's thick,
suffocating atmosphere,
which is made up of carbon
dioxide and sulfuric clouds
that reflect sunlight.

50 miles
(80 km)

IS THE THICKNESS OF
THE ATMOSPHERE.

0.8
0.9
3.03 ounces per cubic
inch (5.25 g/cu cm)

Average temperature

860° F (460° C)

Atmosphere

Very thick

Moons

None

farther from the Sun and reflects all but 20 percent of the Sun's
light. The surface temperature of Venus is relatively constant,
averaging 860° F (460° C). The atmospheric pressure on Venus is
90 times greater than that on the Earth.
MANTLE
Made of molten rock, it
constitutes most of the
planet. It traps the solar
radiation and is between
37 and 62 miles (60 and
100 km) thick.

CORE
It is believed that Venus's core is
similar to the Earth's, containing
metallic elements (iron and
nickel) and silicates. Venus has no
magnetic field—possibly because
of its slow axial rotation.

14,400º F
Carbon
dioxide

Nitrogen and
traces of
other gases

97%

3%

The surface of Venus is
rocky and dry. Most of
the planet is formed by
volcanic plains and
other, elevated regions.

(8,000º C)

3,70
(6,0 0 miles
00
km)

CONVENTIONAL
PLANET SYMBOL

3,70
(6,0 0 miles
00
km)

Composition

CHARACTERISTICS

The Venusian surface has not remained the same throughout its life. The
current one is some 500 million years old, but the rocky landscape visible
today was formed by intense volcanic activity. Volcanic rock covers 85
percent of the planet. The entire planet is crisscrossed by vast plains
and enormous rivers of lava, as well as a number of mountains. The
lava flows have created a great number of grooves, some of which
are very wide. The brightness of Venus's surface is the result of
metallic compounds.

MAGELLAN
Venus was explored by the
Magellan spacecraft
between 1990 and 1994. The
probe was equipped with a
radar system to observe the
surface through its dense
atmosphere.

*In both cases, Earth = 1
AXIS INCLINATION

117°
Rotates on its
own axis every
243 days

GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Only 20 percent of the Sun's
light reaches the surface of
Venus. The thick clouds of
dust, sulfuric acid, and carbon
dioxide that constitute Venus's
atmosphere reflect the
remaining light, leaving Venus
in permanent darkness.

SOLAR RADIATION
Venus is kept hot by its thick
atmosphere, which retains the
energy of the Sun's rays.

864º F
(462º C)

INFRARED RAYS
The surface of Venus radiates
infrared radiation. Only 20 percent
of the Sun's rays pass through
Venus's thick clouds of sulfuric acid.

ISHTAR TERRA
One of the raised plateaus of Venus, it
is similar in size to Australia and is
located close to Venus's north pole. It
has four main rocky mountain ranges
called Maxwell Montes, Freyja Montes,
Akna Montes, and Dam Montes.

SULFURIC
ACID

Venus lacks water. A U.S.
robot probe sent to Venus in
1978 found some evidence
that water vapor could have
existed in the atmosphere
hundreds of millions of years
ago, but today no trace of
water remains.

CRUST
Made up of
silicates, it is
thicker than the
Earth's crust.

APHRODITE TERRA
Larger than Ishtar Terra, it is the size
of South America. Aphrodite Terra
lies near the equator and consists
mostly of mountainous regions to the
east and west, which are separated
by a low-lying region.

48 THE SOLAR SYSTEM

UNIVERSE 49

Red and Fascinating

Surface

M

Martian Orbit

-220º F

Composition

Because Mars's orbit is more
elliptical than that of Earth,
Mars's distance from the Sun varies
widely. At its perihelion, or closest
approach to the Sun, Mars receives
45 percent more solar radiation than
at its aphelion, or farthest point.
Temperatures on Mars range from
-220° F to 62° F (-140° C to 17° C).

(-140º C)

Mars, a rocky planet, has an iron-rich core. Mars
is almost half the size of the Earth and has a
similar period of rotation, as well as clearly evident
clouds, winds, and other weather phenomena. Its thin
atmosphere is made up of carbon dioxide, and its red
color comes from its soil, which is rich in iron oxide.

EARTH

62º F

MARS

SUN

(17º C)

MANTLE
It is made of
molten rock of
greater density
than the Earth's
mantle.

Olympus
Mons

Moons

CHARACTERISTICS

ns
Mo
s
i
rs
Tha

ris

Valle
s

hours at an altitude of 14,627 miles (23,540 km),
and Phobos orbits Mars in eight hours at an
altitude of 5,840 miles (9,400 km). Astronomers
believe that the moons are asteroids that
were captured by Mars's gravity.
PHOBOS

DEIMOS

DIAMETER
DISTANCE
FROM MARS

The canyon system of the
Valles Marineris was likely
caused naturally, primarily
by water erosion.

2,000 miles
(3,294 km)

CRUST
is thin and made up of
solid rock. It is 31
miles (50 km) thick.

17 MILES
(27 KM)
DISTANCE 5,840 MILES
FROM MARS (9,400 KM)

rra
Te

h
Sout

1965 MARINER 4
The first mission sent
to Mars, it made only
brief flyovers.

1969 MARINER 6
AND 7 studied the
southern hemisphere
and equator of Mars.

1971 MARINER 9
photographed the
Olympus volcano
for the first time.

1973 MARS 4, MARS 5,
MARS 6, AND MARS 7
Russian spacecraft
successfully sent to Mars

1976 VIKING 1 AND 2
searched for traces of life.
They were the first spacecraft
to land on Martian soil.

Nitrogen

2.1%

1997 MARS
PATHFINDER was
the third successful
Mars landing.

Equatorial
diameter

4,222 miles
(6,794 km)

Orbital
speed

15 miles per
second (24 km/s)
0.107
0.38
2.27 ounces per cubic
inch (3.93 g/cu cm)

Average
temperature

-81° F
(-63° C)

Atmosphere

Very thin
2

AXIS INCLINATION

e
Pol

25.2°
One rotation
lasts 1.88 years.

Oxygen, carbon monoxide,
water vapor, and other gases

1997 MARS GLOBAL
SURVEYOR took more
than 100,000 photos
of the planet.

1.88 years

*In both cases, Earth = 1

2.6%
After our own Moon, Mars has been a more attractive target for
exploratory missions than any other object in the solar system.

Solar orbit
(Martian year)

Moons

Carbon
dioxide

MISSIONS TO MARS

ESSENTIAL DATA

Average
141,600,000
distance from
miles
the Sun
(227,900,000 km)

Density

95.3%

um
Siren

CONVENTIONAL
PLANET SYMBOL

Mass*
Gravity*

is Lacus
S ol

ATMOSPHERE
Thin and continuously
thinning as solar winds
diminish atmosphere

DIAMETER

9 MILES (15 KM)
14,627 MILES
(23,540 KM)

OLYMPUS
72,200 FEET
(22,000 METERS)

VALLES MARINERIS

CORE
Small and likely
composed of iron

IN SUMMER

Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos.
Both have a lower density than Mars and
are pitted with craters. Phobos has a diameter of
17 miles (27 km), and Deimos has a diameter of
nine miles (15 km). Deimos orbits Mars in 30

EVEREST
29,000 FEET
(8,848 METERS)

Ma
rin
e

IN WINTER

It is a place of geologic extremes, shaped by
volcanic activity, meteorite bombardment,
windstorms, and floods (though there is little or no
water on Mars today). Mountains dominate the
southern hemisphere, but lowlands are common in
the northern hemisphere.

1,000 miles
(1,700 km)

ars is the fourth planet from the Sun. Of all the planets, Mars most
closely resembles the Earth. It has polar ice caps, and the tilt of its axis,
period of rotation, and internal structure are similar to those of the Earth. Known as the
Red Planet because of the reddish iron oxide that covers its surface, Mars has a thin atmosphere
composed essentially of carbon dioxide. Mars does not have water, though it did in the past, and
there is evidence some water might exist underground. Many spacecraft have been sent to explore
Mars, in part because it is the planet other than Earth most likely to have developed some form of
life, and it will probably be the first planet humans leave the Earth to visit.

OLYMPUS MONS
This gigantic, inactive volcano is not only the
largest on Mars but also in the solar system.

2001 MARS ODYSSEY
mapped the mineralogy
and morphology of
Mars's surface.

2003 MARS EXPRESS
Orbiting probe. First
spacecraft sent by the
European Space Agency.

2004 SPIRIT AND
OPPORTUNITY
surveyed many square
miles of the surface.

2006 MARS RECONNAISSANCE
ORBITER made a detailed study
of the Martian surface while
orbiting the planet.

50 THE SOLAR SYSTEM

UNIVERSE 51

Jupiter, Gas Giant

J

upiter is the largest planet in the solar system. Its diameter is 11 times that
of the Earth, and its mass is 300 times as great. Because the speed of Jupiter's rotation
flattens the planet at its poles, its equatorial diameter is greater than its polar diameter.
Jupiter rotates at 25,000 miles per hour (40,000 km/hr). One of the most distinctive elements
of Jupiter's atmosphere is its so-called Great Red Spot, a giant high-pressure region of
turbulence that has been observed from the Earth for more than 300
years. The planet is orbited by numerous satellites and has
a wide, faint ring of particles.

The Moons of Jupiter
Jupiter has more than 60 moons. Many of
them have not been officially confirmed and do

AMALTHEA

iles
00 m
23,0 0 km)
0
(37,0

Jupiter is a giant ball of
hydrogen and helium
that have been compressed
into liquid in the planet's
interior and into metallic rock
in its core. Not much is known
about Jupiter's core, but it is
believed to be bigger than the
Earth's core.

ATMOSPHERE
measures 620
miles (1,000 km).

THEBE

1 radius 2

CHARACTERISTICS
CONVENTIONAL
PLANET SYMBOL

483,000,000
miles
(778,000,000 km)

Solar orbit
(Jovian year)
Equatorial
diameter

Mass*
Gravity*
Density

88,700 miles
(142,800 km)
8 miles per
second (13 km/s)
318
2.36
0.77 ounce per cubic
inch (1.33 g/cu cm)

Average
temperature

-184° F
(-120° C)

Atmosphere
Moons

Very dense
More than 60

*In both cases, Earth = 1
AXIS INCLINATION

3.1°
One rotation
lasts 9 hours
and 55 minutes.

5

6

7

8

9

Enlarged
region

26

LEDA

HIMALIA LYSITHEA ELARA

ANANKE

160/63/67

CARME

54,000º F
(30,000º C)
OUTER MANTLE
Made of liquid
molecular hydrogen.
The outer mantle
merges with the
atmosphere.

GANYMEDE
3,270 MILES
(5,268 KM)

15

PASIPHAE

SINOPE

IO
2,264 MILES
(3,643 KM)

CALISTO
2,986 MILES
(4,806 KM)

302 322 335/8

16,160
miles
(26,000 km)
GREAT RED SPOT

RINGS

Jupiter's rings are made of dust from the planet's four
inner moons. These rings were first seen in 1979 by the
space probe Voyager 1 and later by Voyager 2.

OUTER GOSSAMER RING
INNER GOSSAMER RING
MAIN RING

11 years
312 days

Orbital speed

4

The winds on Jupiter blow in contiguous bands
and opposing directions. The bands' small
differences in temperature and chemical composition
give the planet its multicolored appearance. Jupiter's
inclement environment, in which winds blow at more
than 370 miles per hour (600 km/